tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-21582659999110826752024-02-20T17:21:32.247-08:00Who says I'm not studying?Celine http://www.blogger.com/profile/07743954390549347634noreply@blogger.comBlogger3125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2158265999911082675.post-54341218633870494102013-11-23T23:28:00.001-08:002013-11-23T23:28:08.052-08:00LJ - Chapter 3 - The Consonants of English<div style="text-align: center;">
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</div>
CHAPTER3</div>
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
THE CONSONANTS OF ENGLISH</h2>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i>"Phonetics is concerned with describing speech."</i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>1. STOP CONSONANTS</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is aspiration?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>A period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel.</li>
<li>The burst of air that comes out during the period of voicelessness after the release of a stop.</li>
<li>In narrow transcription, aspiration may be indicated by [ ʰ ].</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;">/p, t, k/ <i>VS. </i>/b, d, g/</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>The difference lies in vowel length, and not in the voicing of the final consonants.</li>
<li>It is a general rule of English that syllable final voiceless consonants are longer than the corresponding voiced consonants after the same vowel.</li>
<li>In narrow transcription, we can symbolize the fact that a consonant is unreleased by adding [ ̚ ] which stands for <i>no audible release</i>.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is the importance of a glottal stop?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>It conveys meaning by the fact that one could be understood equally well by using a syllabic consonant instead of a vowel by adding [ ˌ ] under the consonant. </li>
<li>As long as there is a glottal stop between two syllables, the utterance will mean <i>no</i>, irrespective of what vowel or nasal is used.</li>
<ul>
<li>[ˈm̩hm̩]</li>
<li>[ˈʔm̩ʔm̩] </li>
</ul>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a nasal plosion?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>The air pressure built up behind the stop closure is release through the nose by the lowering of the velum for the nasal consonant.</li>
<li>Also occurs in the pronunciation of words with [t] followed by [n].</li>
<li>Only occurs if there is no glottal stop, or if the glottal stop is released after an alveolar closure has been made and before the velum is lowered.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is homorganic?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>When two sounds have the same place of articulations.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a lateral plosion?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>When an alveolar stop occurs before a homorganic lateral. </li>
<li>The air pressure built up during the stop can be released by lowering the sides of the tongue.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>Stop consonant releases</i></span></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKAR7xyNJJFTQsMesJ-Bqf_4zdsRWFzMJ4pJ1xOil0a-dEHEH_D-J5Jzb9YqH-XveV6O071UHCFrEIjKTFyPRnbX3dbmj6sz9D1zjxY1caTcQoW1Kc0AZtlSATENx587OJSNGRqdvAZ_c/s1600/stop+consonant+releases.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="197" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKAR7xyNJJFTQsMesJ-Bqf_4zdsRWFzMJ4pJ1xOil0a-dEHEH_D-J5Jzb9YqH-XveV6O071UHCFrEIjKTFyPRnbX3dbmj6sz9D1zjxY1caTcQoW1Kc0AZtlSATENx587OJSNGRqdvAZ_c/s320/stop+consonant+releases.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<u><b>2. FRICATIVES</b></u></div>
<ul style="text-align: left;">
<li>English fricatives vary less than stop consonants, yet major allophonic variations that do occur are in many ways similar to those of the stops.</li>
<li>Stops and fricatives are the only English consonants that can be either <i>voiced</i> or <i>voiceless</i>.</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>How are stops and fricatives similar?</i></span></div>
<ol style="text-align: left;">
<li>They influence vowel length in similar ways.</li>
<ul>
<li>Vowels are <i>shorter</i> before voiceless consonants.</li>
<li style="text-align: left;">Vowels are <i>longer</i> before voiced consonants.</li>
</ul>
<li>Final voiceless consonants are longer than final voiced consonants.</li>
<li>Voiced consonants are not actually voiced throughout the articulation unless adjacent sounds are also voiced.</li>
<ul>
<li>Voiced consonants at the end of a word are voiced throughout their
articulation only when they are followed by another voiced sound. </li>
</ul>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>How are stops and fricatives different?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>Fricatives sometimes involve actions of the lips that are not immediately obvious.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a secondary articulation?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>A lesser degree of closure by two articulators not involved in the primary articulation. </li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i> What is labialization?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>The action of the lips is added to another articulation.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><span style="color: #351c75;">What is an obstruent?</span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>A natural class of sounds made up of <i>stops</i> and <i>fricatives</i>.</li>
<li>A type of articulation that involves an obstruction of the airstream.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>3. AFFRICATES</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>A sequence of a stop followed by a homorganic fricative (e.g., Consonant clusters; Dental affricate [tθ] and alveolar affricate [ts]).</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are special affricates? </i></span><br /><ul>
<li>Palato-alveolar affricates [tʃ] and [dʒ] are the only affricates in English that can occur at the end of words.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>4. NASALS</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li> English nasals vary even less than fricatives.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>When are nasals syllabic?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Together with [r] and/or [l], nasals can be syllabic when they occur at the end of words. </li>
<li>They are marked with [ ̩ ] under the syllabic consonant.</li>
<ul>
<li>Vowels are <i>always</i> syllabic and therefore need no special mark.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is special about </i>[ŋ]<i>? </i><i> </i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>No English word can begin with [ŋ].</li>
<li>This sound can only occur within or at the end of a word, and even in these circumstances it does not behave like the other nasals.</li>
<li>It can be preceded only by the vowels /ɪ, ɛ, æ, ʌ, ɑ/ in American English.</li>
<li>It <i>cannot</i> be syllabic.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>5. APPROXIMANTS</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li> Approximant articulation vary slightly depending on the articulation of the following vowel.</li>
<ul>
<li>The tongue will be in a different position.</li>
</ul>
<li>May occur in consonant clusters with stop consonants.</li>
<li>They are largely voiceless when they follow voiceless stops /p, t, k/.</li>
<ul>
<li>This voicelessness is a manifestation of the aspiration that occurs after voiceless stops.</li>
<li>[ ʰ ] can be used to show that the first part of the vowel is voiceless.</li>
<li>[ ̥ ] can be used to indicate a voiceless sound when there is no immediately following vowel.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are central approximants in English?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>/w, r, j/ </li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are lateral approximants in English?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>/l/</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is velarization?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>The second articulation when pronouncing /l/.</li>
<ul>
<li>Primary articulation: The center of the tongue is pulled does (there is contact on the alveolar ridge)</li>
<li>Secondary articulation: The back is arched upward as in a back vowel.</li>
</ul>
<li>In most forms of American English, all examples of /l/ is velarized. </li>
<li>In British English;</li>
<ul>
<li>/l/ is no velarized when it is before a vowel.</li>
<li>/l/ is velarized when it is in word final position or before a consonant.</li>
</ul>
<li>[ ̴ ] is the symbol for velarization placed through the middle of the symbol.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is the status of</i> [h]<i>?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>/h/ is the voiceless counterpart of surrounding sounds.</li>
<li>At the beginning of a sentence, /h/ is like a voiceless vowel.</li>
<li>/h/ can also occur between vowels in words.</li>
<li>The articulatory movement is continuous as you move from one vowel through /h/ to another.</li>
<ul>
<li>/h/ is signaled by a weakening of the voicing, but does not result in a completely voiceless sound.</li>
</ul>
<li>/h/ can usually only occur before stressed vowels or before the approximant /j/.</li>
<li>Sometimes, speakers sound /h/ before /w/.</li>
<li>[ʍ] sometimes used for this voiceless approximant.</li>
<ul>
<li>More likely to be found only in the less common words such as <i>whether</i> rather than in frequently used words such as <i>what</i>.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<u><b>6. OVERLAPPING GESTURES</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>There is no simple relationship between the description of a language in terms of phonemes and the description of utterances in terms of gestural targets. </li>
<ul>
<li>A <i>phoneme</i> is an abstract unit that may be realized in several different ways.</li>
<ul>
<li>Used in descriptions of languages to show how words contrast with one another. </li>
</ul>
<li>Sometimes, the difference between the different allophones of a phoneme can be explained in terms of <i>targets</i> and <i>overlapping gestures</i>.</li>
</ul>
<li>Virtually all gestures for neigboring sounds overlap.</li>
<ul>
<li>Differences in the timing of one gesture with respect to another account for a wide range of the phenomena that we observe in speech.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>Lip rounding</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>An essential part of /w/.</li>
<ul>
<li>There is a tendency for gestures to overlap with those for adjacent sounds.</li>
</ul>
<li>Sometimes occurs with /ɹ/. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i> What is anticipatory coarticulation?</i></span><br /><ul>
<li>When a second gesture starts during the first gesture.</li>
<li>The gesture for the approximant is anticipated during the gesture for the stop. </li>
<li>Stops are slightly rounded when they occur in clusters in which /w/ is the second element. </li>
<li>Coarticulation between sounds will always result in the positions of some parts of the vocal tract being influenced quite a lot.</li>
<ul>
<li>Whereas others will not be so much affected by neighboring targets.</li>
</ul>
<li>The extent to which anticipatory coarticulation occurs depends on the extent to which the position of that part of the vocal tract is specified in the two gestures.</li>
<ul>
<li>The degree of coarticulation also depends on the interval between them.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a target?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>We can often think of the gestures for different articulations as movements towards certain targets.</li>
<li>A target is something that one aims at but does not necessarily hit.</li>
<ul>
<li>Perhaps because one is drawn off by having to aim at a second target.</li>
</ul>
<li>Gestural targets are units that can be used in descriptions of how a speaker produces an utterance. </li>
<li>Ideally, the description of an utterance might consist of the specification of a string of target gestures that must be made one after another. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>How is </i>[y]<i> called?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>"umlaut u" </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the 2 types of allophones? </i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Because phonemes are composed of these two types of allophones, they cannot be equated with <i>gestures.</i> </li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Intrinsic Allophones</li>
<ul>
<li>The difference between allophones are the result of overlapping gestures. </li>
</ul>
<li>Extrinsic Allophones</li>
<ul>
<li>The difference between allophones involving different gestures.</li>
</ul>
</ol>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>7. RULES FOR ENGLISH CONSONANT ALLOPHONES</b></u><br />
<ol>
<li> Consonants are longer when at the end of a phrase.</li>
<li>Voiceless stops are aspirated when they are syllable initial.</li>
<li>Obstruents are classified as voiced are voiced through only a small part of the articulation when they occur at the end of an utterance or before a voiceless sound.</li>
<li>So-called voiced stops and affricates are voiceless when syllable initial, except when immediately preceded by a voiced sound.</li>
<li>Voiceless stops are unaspirated after s in words.</li>
<li>Voiceless obstruents are longer than the corresponding voiced obstruents when at the end of a syllable.</li>
<li>Approximants are at least partially voiceless when they occur after initial voiceless stops.</li>
<li>The gestures for consecutive stops overlap, so that stops are unexploded when they occur before another stop.</li>
<li>In many accents of English, syllable final voiceless stops are accompanied by an overlapping glottal stop gesture.</li>
<li>In many accents of English, /t/ is replaced by a glottal stop when it occurs before an alveolar nasal in the same word.</li>
<li>Nasals are syllabic at the end of a word when immediately after an obstruent.</li>
<li>An alveolar lateral approximant is a syllabic at the end of a word when immediately after a consonant.</li>
<ul>
<li>Liquids are syllabic at the end of a word when immediately after a consonant.</li>
</ul>
<li>Alveolar stops become voiced taps when they occur between two vowels the second of which is unstressed.</li>
<ul>
<li>Alveolar stops and alveolar nasal plus stop sequence become voiced taps when they occur between two vowels the second of which is unstressed.</li>
</ul>
<li>Alveolar consonants become dentals before dental consonants.</li>
<li>Alveolar stops are reduced or omitted when between two consonants.</li>
<li>A homorganic voiceless stop may occur after a nasal before a voiceless fricative followed by an unstressed vowel in the same word.</li>
<li>A consonant is shortened when it is before an identical consonant.</li>
<li>Velar stops become more front before more front vowels.</li>
<li>An alveolar lateral approximant is velarized when after a vowel or before a consonant at the end of a word.</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>8. DIACRITICS</b></u><br />
<br />
<i>Some diacritics that modify the value of a symbol</i><br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLgQzVUHT62eV4ha8rEfStl1GIa0Cd8ga6vdQfwmA6xOAnPyjNoyjyUVU5Fc0C8XJavG_tWamawF7rKsv0I2uQg4v3fe4zEwqeBW5yhQ0yIbbYxsQS_jTAOiNFCrcbRyi82bMXcxHyeTg/s1600/diacritics.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLgQzVUHT62eV4ha8rEfStl1GIa0Cd8ga6vdQfwmA6xOAnPyjNoyjyUVU5Fc0C8XJavG_tWamawF7rKsv0I2uQg4v3fe4zEwqeBW5yhQ0yIbbYxsQS_jTAOiNFCrcbRyi82bMXcxHyeTg/s640/diacritics.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<i> </i> </div>
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Celine http://www.blogger.com/profile/07743954390549347634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2158265999911082675.post-79233450521710148962013-11-23T16:18:00.002-08:002013-11-23T16:18:10.948-08:00LJ - Chapter 2 - Phonology and Phonetic Transcription<div style="text-align: center;">
CHAPTER 2</div>
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
<b>PHONOLOGY AND PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION</b></h2>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i>"Phonetics is concerned with describing speech."</i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What can a phonetician do?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Describe speech.</li>
<li>Understand the mechanism of speech production and speech perception.</li>
<ul>
<li>Knows how language use these mechanisms. <i><br /></i></li>
</ul>
</ul>
<i><span style="color: #351c75;">What is a phonetic transcription?</span></i><br />
<ul>
<li> No more than a useful tool that phoneticians use in the description of speech.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a phonemic transcription? </i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>Recording all the variations between sounds that can cause a difference in meaning.</li>
<li>Transcribing a word in a way that shows none of the details of the the pronunciation that are predictable by phonological rules. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a phoneme?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Two sounds that can be used to differentiate words.</li>
<li>We cannot rely in the spelling to tell us whether two sounds are members of different phonemes.</li>
<li>A phoneme is not a single sound, but a name for a group of sounds.</li>
<li>They are abstract units that form the basis for writing down a language systematically and unambiguously. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is the citation style of speech?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>The style of speech you use to show someone how to pronounce a word.<i> </i> </li>
<li>Transcriptions of citation style are particularly useful in language documentation and lexicography.</li>
<li>It serves as the basic phonetic transcription of connected speech.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is connected speech?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>The style that is used in normal conversation. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What do phoneticians transcribe?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>When they transcribe a citation speech utterance, they are concerned with how the sounds convey differences in meaning.</li>
<li>Describe the significant articulations rather than the details of the sounds (i.e., Broad transcription). </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is phonology?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>The description of the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in a language.</li>
<li>Involves studying a language to determine its distinctive sounds, that is, those sounds that convey a difference in meaning. </li>
<li>The set of rules or constraints that describe the relation between the underlying sounds.</li>
<ul>
<li>Its abstract units are called <i>phonemes</i>.</li>
<li>Its observable units are called <i>phonetic form</i>.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<br />
<u><b>1. THE TRANSCRIPTION OF CONSONANTS </b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li> Begin by searching for phonemes, consider contrasting consonants that differ by only one sound (i.e., minimal pairs/sets).</li>
</ul>
<ul>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a minimal set?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>A set of words in which each differs from all the others by only one sound.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the symbols used for transcribing English consonants?</i></span> <br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYq-coKWH89wvO4kLkgqCrrqXTBWsRegN1OBte1EiKlaZa_P-vMQGiVg7y1MMIOxuMok7uKsrWgZzJftf1fr3fq9rTKuH8Z63ni9ajGWgExU2hyphenhyphenozudOcXrTAzc4AupyiNWuHc5wuV2aU/s1600/consonants.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="361" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYq-coKWH89wvO4kLkgqCrrqXTBWsRegN1OBte1EiKlaZa_P-vMQGiVg7y1MMIOxuMok7uKsrWgZzJftf1fr3fq9rTKuH8Z63ni9ajGWgExU2hyphenhyphenozudOcXrTAzc4AupyiNWuHc5wuV2aU/s400/consonants.png" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<ul>
<li>Ascenders </li>
<ul>
<li>[θ] "theta"</li>
<li>[ð] "eth"</li>
</ul>
<li>[ʒ] "ezh" or "long <i>z</i>"</li>
<ul>
<li>May also be written as [ž].</li>
</ul>
<li>Affricates & Digraphs</li>
<ul>
<li>[tʃ]</li>
<ul>
<li>May also be written as [č].</li>
</ul>
<li>[dʒ] </li>
<ul>
<li>May also be written as [ǰ].</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<li>[ ͡ ] Ligature symbol</li>
<ul>
<li>Used to make explicit that we are writing an affricate and not a consonant cluster.</li>
<ul>
<li>[tʃ] (e.g., <i>white shoes</i>) </li>
<li>[t͡ʃ] (e.g., <i>why choose</i>)</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<li>[ʔ]</li>
<ul>
<li>The glottal stop that begins words that are spelled with an initial vowel.</li>
<li>Dialectal difference</li>
<ul>
<li>In American English, [ʔ] may only occurs word initially before vowels.</li>
<li>In London Cockney or other dialects that have a variant of [t], [ʔ] may appear between vowels in words and is usually pronounced with simultaneous glottal stop [t͡ʔ].</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<li>[w]</li>
<ul>
<li>Some speakers contrast <i>which</i> and <i>witch</i>. These words are transcribed with [hw].</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<br />
<u><b>2. THE TRANSCRIPTION OF VOWELS</b></u><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the challenges in English vowel transcription?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Accents differ more in their use of vowels than in consonants.</li>
<li>Authorities differ in their views of what constitutes an appropriate description of vowels.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a diphthong?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>Movements from one vowel to another within a single syllable. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the symbols used to transcribe English vowels?</i></span><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE8Iqd9-yAy6Ba40lumtIf88YXRYmG-ak9L0XPEYMluyovI1wK1WRaLziV4zWlS2Zsy0pVDfXaf1FNX_uznr82GUj9Mcn0X8I4QO1Sv4v0JVh2gI74IukFyXE-kQXOAGSqNigwhpKhOlE/s1600/vowels.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="330" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiE8Iqd9-yAy6Ba40lumtIf88YXRYmG-ak9L0XPEYMluyovI1wK1WRaLziV4zWlS2Zsy0pVDfXaf1FNX_uznr82GUj9Mcn0X8I4QO1Sv4v0JVh2gI74IukFyXE-kQXOAGSqNigwhpKhOlE/s400/vowels.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<u>Vowels </u><br /><ul>
<li>[ə] "schwa"</li>
<ul>
<li>Most common unstressed vowel. </li>
</ul>
<li>[ʌ] "wedge"</li>
<li>[ks]</li>
<ul>
<li>Often represents <i>x</i>. </li>
</ul>
<li>[ɹ]</li>
<ul>
<li>Often represents the unusual English <i>r</i> sound.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<u>Diacritics </u><br />
<ul>
<li>[<span style="font-size: large;"><b>ː</b></span>]</li>
<ul>
<li>Add this diacritic to distinguish sounds that differ in length.</li>
<li>Never used when making phonemic transcriptions. </li>
</ul>
<li>[˞]</li>
<ul>
<li>Add this diacritic to indicate the <i>r</i>-coloring of a vowel.</li>
<li>Rhotacized.</li>
</ul>
<li>[ˈ]</li>
<ul>
<li>A stress mark that has been placed <i>before</i> the syllable carrying the main stress.</li>
<li>Stress must always be marked in words of more than one syllable.</li>
</ul>
<li>[ ̪ ]</li>
<ul>
<li>Added under a symbol to indicate that it represents a dental articulation.</li>
</ul>
<li>[ ̥ ]</li>
<ul>
<li>Used to indicate that the symbol representing a voiceless sound.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<br />
<u><b>3. CONSONANT AND VOWEL CHARTS</b></u> (in English)<br />
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5RedXFOAnrvLzvfUOvOswCcV25_jE9uNmfYIjhU-K24d00b-hGE9TRsDGInRSi8ML5lVF51egyZjXGVm0Ot8pBRtMTpLf11RBk4MZf3kU-ESNqEzimlzTH8mxwpDduqzjvDzCKGNRYBY/s1600/consonant+chart.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="248" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5RedXFOAnrvLzvfUOvOswCcV25_jE9uNmfYIjhU-K24d00b-hGE9TRsDGInRSi8ML5lVF51egyZjXGVm0Ot8pBRtMTpLf11RBk4MZf3kU-ESNqEzimlzTH8mxwpDduqzjvDzCKGNRYBY/s400/consonant+chart.png" width="400" /></a></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br />
<u><b>4. PHONOLOGY</b></u><br />
<br />
<i><span style="color: #351c75;">What is the difference between slashes and square brackets?</span></i><br />
<ul>
<li>/phonemes/ = /phonemic transcriptions/ = /underlying form/</li>
<li>[allophones] = [phonetic transcriptions] = [surface form]<i><br /></i></li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are diacritics?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Small marks that can be added to a symbol to modify its value. </li>
<li>Increases the phonetic precision of a transcription. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are allophones?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>The variants of the phonemes that occur in detailed phonetic transcriptions.</li>
<li>They can be described as a result of applying the phonological rules to the underlying phonemes. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is broad transcription?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li> Often used to designate a transcription that uses the simplest possible set of symbols.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is narrow transcription? </i> </span><br />
<ul>
<li>Often used to designate a transcription that shows more phonetic detail, either by using more specific symbols or by representing some allophonic differences. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the types of transcriptions?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Systematic phonetic transcription</li>
<ul>
<li> A narrow transcription so detailed that is shoes the allophones with all the rule-governed alternations among the sounds.</li>
<li>In practice, this is difficult.</li>
</ul>
<li>Impressionistic transcription </li>
<ul>
<li>A transcription that may not imply the existence of rules accounting for allophones.</li>
<li>In these circumstances, the symbols indicate only the phonetic value of sounds.</li>
</ul>
</ol>
<ul>
</ul>
</div>
Celine http://www.blogger.com/profile/07743954390549347634noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2158265999911082675.post-1165143923424963022013-11-06T22:33:00.003-08:002013-11-23T14:07:37.345-08:00LJ - Chapter 1 - Articulation and Acoustics<div style="text-align: center;">
CHAPTER 1</div>
<h2 style="text-align: center;">
<b>ARTICULATION AND ACOUSTICS</b></h2>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i>"Phonetics is concerned with describing speech."</i></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>1. SPEECH PRODUCTION</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: #351c75;"> <i>How are speech sounds made?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Audible tongue and lip gestures that involve pushing air out of the lungs while producing noise in the throat or mouth.</li>
<li>Producing any sound requires energy.</li>
<ul>
<li>The basic source of power is the respiratory system. </li>
</ul>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are articulators?</i></span><i> </i><br />
<ul>
<li>Parts of the vocal tract that can be used to form sounds.</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li> Tongue</li>
<li> Lips</li>
</ol>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>Where does air travel?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Respiratory system pushes air out of lungs.</li>
<li>Trachea</li>
<li>Larynx</li>
<li>Vocal folds</li>
<li>Pharynx</li>
<li>Mouth</li>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What happens in the vocal folds?</i></span></div>
<ul>
<li>Voiced sound: The vocal folds are adjusted so that there is only a narrow passage between them, the airstream from the lungs cause them to vibrate. (i.e., [v])</li>
<li>Voiceless sound: The vocal folds are apart. (i.e., [f])</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is the vocal tract?</i> </span></div>
<ul>
<li>The air passage above the larynx.</li>
<li>Its shape is an important factor in speech production.</li>
<li>Drawing</li>
<ul>
<li>Air passages that make up the vocal tract may be divided into the <i>oral tract</i>, within the mouth and pharynx, and the <i>nasal tract</i>, within the nose. </li>
</ul>
<li>Air goes in and out through the nose when the flap at the back of the mouth is lowered.</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the 4 main components of speech production mechanisms? </i></span></div>
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<ol>
<li>Airstream process</li>
<li>Phonation process </li>
<ul>
<li>The name given to the actions of the vocal folds. </li>
<li>The two possible sounds produces are <i>voiced</i> and <i>voiceless</i>. </li>
</ul>
<li>Oro-nasal process</li>
<ul>
<li>Airstream going out through the nose. </li>
</ul>
<li>Articulatory process</li>
<ul>
<li>The movements of the tongue and lips interacting with the roof of the mouth and the pharynx. </li>
</ul>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>2. SOUND WAVES</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>How do we hear sounds?</i></span></div>
<ul>
<li>Depends on acoustic structure. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>How do we describe speech sounds?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Pitch</li>
<li>Loudness</li>
<li>Quality</li>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the common characteristics of sound waves?</i></span></div>
<ul>
<li>Voiced sound: Vibrating vocal folds have comparatively large regular pulses of air pressure.</li>
<li>Voiceless sound: Sounds without vocal fold vibration have a smaller amplitude and irregular variations in air pressure.</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>3. PLACES OF ARTICULATORY GESTURES</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<i><span style="color: #351c75;">What do articulators do?</span> </i></div>
<ul>
<li>Lower surface of the vocal tract make the gestures required for speech by moving toward the articulators that form the upper surface. </li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"> <i>What are the principal parts of the upper surface of the vocal tract? </i></span></div>
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<ol>
<li>Alveolar ridge</li>
<ul>
<li>Small protuberance just behind the upper teeth. </li>
</ul>
<li>Hard palate</li>
<ul>
<li>Bony structure in the front part of the roof of the mouth. </li>
</ul>
<li>Soft palate (Velum)</li>
<ul>
<li>A muscular flap that can be raised to press against the back wall of the pharynx and shut off the nasal tract.<i> </i> </li>
</ul>
<li>Uvula</li>
<ul>
<li>A small appendage hanging down at the lower end of the soft palate. </li>
</ul>
<li>Pharynx</li>
<ul>
<li>The part of the vocal tract between the uvula and the larynx.</li>
<li>The back wall of the pharynx may be considered as one of the articulators on the upper surface of the vocal tract.</li>
</ul>
<li>Larynx</li>
</ol>
<i></i><br />
<ul>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a velic closure?</i></span></div>
<ul>
<li>It's when the velum is press against the back wall of the pharynx and shuts off the nasal tract, preventing air from going out through the nose.</li>
<li>This action separates the nasal tract from the oral tract so that the air can only go out through the mouth. </li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the principal parts of the lower surface of the vocal tract?</i></span></div>
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<ol>
<li>Lower lip</li>
<li>Tip of the tongue</li>
<li>Blade </li>
<li>Front of the tongue: Located behind the blade, It is the forward part of the body of the tongue that lies underneath the hard palate when the tongue is at rest.</li>
<li>Center of the tongue: Partly beneath the hard palate and velum.</li>
<li>Back of the tongue: Beneath the soft palate. </li>
<li>Root of the tongue: Opposite the back wall of the pharynx. </li>
<li>Epiglottis: Attached to the lower part of the root of the tongue. </li>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the most mobile parts of the tongue?</i></span></div>
<ol>
<li>Tip of the tongue</li>
<li>Blade of the tongue</li>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>How are the speech articulators categorized?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Labial: Uses the lips.</li>
<li>Coronal: Uses the tip/blade of the tongue.</li>
<li>Dorsal: Uses the back of the tongue.</li>
</ol>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the principal terms for the particular types of obstruction required in the description of English?</i></span><br />
<br />
<u>Labial</u><i> </i><br />
<ol>
<li>Bilabial: Upper and lower lip.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>p</b>ie, <b>b</b>uy, <b>m</b>y</i>)</li>
</ul>
<li>Labiodental: Lower lip and upper front teeth.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>f</b>ie, <b>v</b>ie</i>)</li>
</ul>
</ol>
<u>Coronal</u> <br />
<ol>
<li>Dental: Tongue tip and upper front teeth.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e.,<i><b>th</b>ing, <b>th</b>ere</i>)</li>
<li>Interdental: Tip of the tongue protruding between the upper and lower front teeth.</li>
</ul>
<li>Alveolar: Tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>t</b>ie, <b>d</b>ie, <b>n</b>igh, <b>s</b>igh,<b> z</b>eal, <b>l</b>ie</i>)</li>
</ul>
<li>Retroflex: Tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>r</b>ye, <b>r</b>ow, <b>r</b>ay, i<b>re</b>, hou<b>r</b>, ai<b>r</b></i>)</li>
</ul>
<li>Palato-Alveolar: Tongue blade and the back of the alveolar ridge.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>sh</b>y, <b>sh</b>e, <b>sh</b>ow</i>)</li>
<li>Post-alveolar: Blade of the tongue is close to the back part of the alveolar ridge and sounds are produced farther back in the mouth.</li>
</ul>
<li>Palatal: Front of the tongue and hard palate.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>y</b>ou</i>)</li>
</ul>
</ol>
<u>Dorsal</u><br />
<ol>
<li>Velar: Back of the tongue and velum.</li>
<ul>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>h</b>ack, <b>h</b>ag, <b>h</b>ang</i>)</li>
</ul>
<ul></ul>
</ol>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>4. THE ORO-NASAL PROCESS</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>(i.e., Velar: <i>ra<b>ng</b>, </i>Alveolar: <i>ra<b>n</b>, </i>Bilabial: <i>ra<b>m</b></i>) </li>
<li>Air comes out through the nose because air is prevented from going out through the mouth because the velum is lowered.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>5. MANNERS OF ARTICULATION</b></u><br />
<br />
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What can articulators do? </i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Close off the oral tract for an instant or relatively long period.</li>
<li>Narrow the space considerably.</li>
<li>Modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. </li>
</ul>
<u><b>6. STOP</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>Term commonly used to imply a complete stoppage of the airflow through both the nose and the mouth. </li>
<li>Complete closure of the articulators involved so that the airstream cannot escape through the mouth.</li>
<li><i>Velic opening</i> differentiates the types of stops. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the possible types of stops?</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ol>
<li>Oral stop</li>
<li>Nasal stop </li>
</ol>
<u><b>6.1 ORAL STOP</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>Known as <i>plosives</i> in the IPA chart. </li>
<li>Pressure builds up inside the mouth when the mouth is closed and the velum is <i>raised</i> so that the nasal tract is blocked off, and the airstream is thus completely obstructed. </li>
<li>The airstream releases a small burst of sound when the articulators come apart. </li>
<li>(i.e. Bilabial closure: <i><b>p</b>ie, <b>b</b>uy,</i> Alveolar closure: <i><b>t</b>ie, <b>d</b>ye,</i> Velar closure: <i><b>k</b>ye, <b>g</b>uy</i>) </li>
</ul>
<ul>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>6.2 NASAL STOP</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>Air is stopped in the oral cavity but the velum is <i>lowered</i> so the air can go out through the nose.</li>
<li>(i.e., Bilabial closure: <i><b>m</b>y,</i> Alveolar closure: <i><b>n</b>igh</i>, Velar closure: <i>sa<b>ng</b></i>) </li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>7. FRICATIVE</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>Close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.</li>
<li>There is a narrowing of the vocal tract between the blade of the tongue and the back part of the alveolar ridge. </li>
<li>(i.e., Labiodental: <i><b>f</b>ie, <b>v</b>ie</i>, Dental: <i><b>th</b>igh, <b>th</b>y,</i> Alveolar: <i><b>s</b>ign, <b>z</b>oo,</i> Palato-alveolar: <i><b>sh</b>y</i>)</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are sibilants?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>Higher-pitched sounds with a more obvious hiss.</li>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>s</b>igh, <b>sh</b>y</i>) </li>
</ul>
<u><b>8. APPROXIMANT</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>A gesture in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced.</li>
<li>(i.e., <i><b>y</b>acht, <b>w</b>e, ra<b>w</b></i>)</li>
</ul>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>9. LATERAL (APPROXIMANT)</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>Obstruction of the airstream at a point along the center of the oral
tract, with incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue
and the roof of the mouth.</li>
<li>No stoppage of air.</li>
<li>No fricative noises. </li>
<li>(i.e., Alveolar laterals: <i><b>l</b>ie, <b>l</b>augh</i>) </li>
<li>Sucking test: The tongue will feel colder on the side that is not in contact with the roof of the mouth. </li>
</ul>
<u><b>10. ADDITIONAL CONSONANTAL GESTURES</b></u><br />
<ol>
<li>Trill (Roll)</li>
<li>Tap (flap)</li>
<ul>
<li>Tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge.</li>
</ul>
<li>Affricate</li>
<ul>
<li>Some type of articulation combined with a fricative.</li>
</ul>
<li>Glottal stop</li>
<ul>
<li>In English, words that start with a vowel.</li>
</ul>
</ol>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the five factors used to describe consonants?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>State of the vocal folds (voiced or voiceless)</li>
<li>Place of articulation</li>
<li>Central or lateral articulation</li>
<li>Soft palate raised to form a velic closure (oral sounds) or lowered (nasal sounds)</li>
<li>Manner of articulatory action </li>
</ol>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>11. THE WAVEFORMS OF CONSONANTS</b></u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ul>
<li>Amplitude gets larger for vowels. </li>
</ul>
<u><b>12. THE ARTICULATION OF VOWELS</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>Articulators don't come very close together, and the passage of the airstream is relatively unobstructed. </li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>Vowel classification</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Front</li>
<li>Bac<i>k</i></li>
</ol>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>Lip movement</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<ol>
<li>Rounded</li>
<li>Unrounded </li>
</ol>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<u><b>13. THE SOUNDS OF VOWELS</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>There is (voice) <i>pitch</i> at which the vowel is actually spoken. This depends on the pulses being produced by the vibrating vocal folds.</li>
<li>There are <i>overtone pitches</i> (vocal tract pitches) that depend on the shape of the resonating cavities of the vocal tract.</li>
<ul>
<li>Gives the vowel its distinctive quality.</li>
</ul>
<li>We normally cannot hear the separate overtones of a vowel as distinguishable pitches.</li>
<ul>
<li>The only sensation of pitch is the note on which the vowel is said. This depends on the rate of vibration of the vocal folds.</li>
<li>But we hear it when we whisper.</li>
</ul>
<li>Summary: Vowel sounds may be said on a variety of notes (voice pitches), but they are distinguished from one another by two characteristic vocal tract pitches associates with their overtones.</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is a formant?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>F1: Lower pitch that is distinguishable in creaky voice.</li>
<li>F2: Higher pitch that is heard when whispering. </li>
</ol>
<u><b>14. SUPRASEGMENTALS</b></u><br />
<ul>
<li>Vowels and consonants can be thought of as segments of which speech is composed and they form syllables to make up utterances. </li>
<li>Characterized by the fact that they must be described in relation to other items in the same utterance. </li>
<ul>
<li>It is the relative values of pitch, length, or degree of stress of an item that are significant. But the absolute values are never linguistically important.</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What are the features of suprasegmentals?</i></span><br />
<ol>
<li>Stress</li>
<ul>
<li>In English, stress distinguishes nouns from verbs. </li>
</ul>
<li>Pitch </li>
<ul>
<li>An auditory property that enables a listener to place it on a scale going from low to high, without considering its acoustic properties. </li>
<li>↑ Frequency = ↑ Pitch</li>
<li>Equated with a sounds' fundamental frequency.</li>
<li>Pitch changes due to variations in laryngeal activity can occur independently of stress change.</li>
<li>Associated with the rate of vibration in the vocal folds.</li>
<li>Voice pitch is altered to produce different notes measurable by frequency.</li>
</ul>
</ol>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is frequency?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>A technical term for an acoustic property of sound.</li>
<li>The number of complete repetitions (cycles) of a pattern of air pressure variation occurring in a second. </li>
<li>Unit: Hertz (Hz)</li>
</ul>
<span style="color: #351c75;"><i>What is intonation?</i></span><br />
<ul>
<li>The pitch pattern in a sentence. </li>
</ul>
<br /></div>
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